Assignment 110

The Theater of The Absurd

Name: Emisha Ravani

paper: 110 A : History of English Literature - From 1900 to 2000

Roll no: 07

Enrollment no : 4069206420210031

Email id: emisharavani3459@gmail.com

Batch : 2021-2023(M.A sem 2) 

submitted to: S. B. Gardi Department of English, maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji bhavnager University

Introduction

The Theatre of the Absurd is a movement made up of many diverse plays, most of which were written between 1940 and 1960. When first performed, these plays shocked their audiences as they were startlingly different than anything that had been previously staged. In fact, many of them were labelled as “anti-plays.” In an attempt to clarify and define this radical movement, Martin Esslin coined the term “The Theatre of the Absurd” in his 1960 book of the same name. 

He defined it as such, because all of the plays emphasized the absurdity of the human condition. Whereas we tend to use the word “absurd” synonymously with “ridiculous,” Esslin was referring to the original meaning of the word– ‘out of harmony with reason or propriety; illogical’ (Esslin 23). Essentially, each play renders man’s existence as illogical, and moreover, meaningless. This idea was a reaction to the “collapse of moral, religious, political, and social structures” following the two World Wars of the Twentieth Century (Abbotson 1).

Absurdist Theatre was heavily influenced by Existential philosophy. It aligned best with the philosophy in Albert Camus’ essay The Myth of Sisyphus (1942). In this essay, Camus attempts to present a reasonable answer as to why man should not commit suicide in face of a meaningless, absurd existence. To do so, he uses the Greek mythological figure, Sisyphus, who was condemned to push a boulder up a mountain, only to have it roll back down. He repeats this futile cycle for all of eternity. At the end of the essay, Camus concludes that, “One must imagine Sisyphus happy” (Camus 123). He means that the struggle of life alone should bring one happiness. Essentially, we can find meaning in living even without knowing why we exist.

The absurd dramatists, however, did not resolve the problem of man’s meaningless existence quite as positively as Camus. In fact, they typically offered no solution to the problem whatsoever, thus suggesting that the question is ultimately unanswerable.

Themes

While absurdist plays feature a wide variety of subject matter, there are certain themes, or ideas, which reoccur frequently within the movement. These themes are the product of a new attitude that swept post-World War II Europe. It consisted primarily of the acknowledgement that the “certitudes” and “assumptions” of prior generations had “been tested and found wanting, that they [were] discredited as cheap and somewhat childish illusions” (Esslin 23). Two themes that reoccur frequently throughout absurdist dramas are a meaningless world and the isolation of the individual.

A World Without Meaning

The decline of religious faith in the Twentieth Century is partly responsible for the growing notion that life had no identifiable purpose. Whereas one who believes in the afterlife sees life as a means of getting there, one who does not believe is left to either conclude that there is no purpose or to find an alternative justification for his/her life. Esslin notes that this decline was “masked until the end of the Second World War by the substitute religions of faith in progress, nationalism, and various totalitarian fallacies” (23)

. Yet these approaches also appeared flawed, leaving the other option–the assertion that there is no meaning behind human life. In his play, The Chairs, Ionesco capitalizes on this meaninglessness. Throughout the play, the two main characters prepare chairs for invisible guests who are all coming to hear the meaning of life as declared by an orator. The main characters kill themselves just before he speaks and then the audience discovers that the orator is a deaf-mute. Ionesco himself described the subject of the play as, “not the message, nor the failures of life, nor the moral disaster of the two old people, but the chairs themselves; that is to say, the absence of people, the absence of the emperor, the absence of God, the absence of matter, the unreality of the world, metaphysical emptiness” (qtd. in Esslin 152). This kind of world view is characteristic of the Theatre of the Absurd.

The Isolation of the Individual

The playwrights involved with the Theatre of the Absurd were not conscious of belonging to a movement while writing their plays. Ironically, they each thought of himself as “a lone outsider, cut off and isolated in [his own] private world” (Esslin 22). This perspective clearly penetrates their work, as most of the plays emphasize the isolation of the individual, or man’s inability to connect with others. 

Samuel Beckett’s //Waiting for Godot// (1952), the most well-known play from the absurdist movement, features this idea. The two main characters, Vladimir and Estragon, are both tramps who spend the entirety of the play on the outskirts of society. Though they have each other, they are at the same time isolated from one another. One indication of this is that they are never able to adequately communicate; their conversation goes in circles.

Form

The form of a piece of art is often neglected in favor of its subject matter. More specifically, drama is often studied in terms of what it is saying rather than in how it is saying it. (At least this is so in most academic settings because students typically read a play rather than see it performed.) Form, however, is arguably the most important aspect of absurdist plays. It is what separates them from other similarly themed movements, mainly existential drama. 

Esslin claims that “the Theatre of the Absurd goes one step further [than existential drama] in trying to achieve a unity between its basic assumptions and the form in which these are expressed” (24). Essentially, these playwrights were reacting against realism because it did not align with their objectives. They did not want to show life as it really was, but rather, the inner-life of man–what was going on inside his head. Esslin explains that “the Theatre of the Absurd merely communicates one poet’s most intimate and personal intuition of the human situation, his own sense of being, his individual vision of the world” (402-403). In order to portray this “personal intuition” the playwrights had to abandon conventional methods and adopt a more poetic, or lyrical, form.

Devaluation of Language

One characteristic of this poetic form was the devaluation of language. The absurd dramatists felt that conventional language had failed man–it was an inadequate means of communication. As a result, the movement of the characters on stage often contradicts their words or dialogue. For example, both acts of Waiting for Godot conclude with the line “Yes, let’s go,” only to be followed by the stage direction, “They do not move” (Beckett 6). Essentially, the dramatists are trying to emphasize a disconnect between “word and object, meaning and reality, consciousness and the world” (Blocker 1). Moreover, in doing so they expose how unreliable language is; one can easily say one thing and do the opposite.

Another common way in which they presented the uselessness of language was by having their characters constantly speak in cliches, or overused, tired expressions. One prime example of this is from Ionesco’s The Bald Soprano:

Mrs. Martin: How curious it is, good Lord, how bizarre!…

Mr. Martin [musing]: How curious it is, how curious it is, how curious it is, and what a coincidence!

(Ionesco 14).

The phrase “how curious it is” has been said so many times, even outside of this play, that it has lost its meaning. Therefore, their repetition of it is empty–they are speaking without actually communicating. Essentially, the dramatists are claiming that language has become a means of occupying time and space rather than a way to effectively communicate with one another.

Lack of Plot

Another poetic aspect of absurdist plays is that they lack a plot or a clear beginning and end with a purposeful development in between. There is usually a great deal of repetition in both language and action, which suggests that the play isn’t actually “going anywhere.” In Waiting for Godot, the stage directions indicate that Vladimir and Estragon are constantly moving. For example, they repeatedly “rummage” through their pockets and “peer” into their hats (Beckett 4-9). These actions are so frequent, however, that the audience begins to feel as if they are watching the same thing over and over again. They could even be called static actions as they contribute nothing to the flow of the play. 

Yet this lack of purposeful movement in Waiting for Godot and most other absurdist dramas is intentional. As discussed above, the plays are attempting to portray an intuition which by definition should be an instantaneous or immediate insight. It is “only because it is physically impossible to present so complex an image in an instant [that] it has to be spread over a period of time” (Esslin 404). Therefore, if one does not view the play as a story, but rather as a single idea being acted out, this supposed lack of plot becomes irrelevant.

Conclusion

Above all, the absurd dramatists sought to reconcile man with the modern world. Esslin eloquently states that “the dignity of man lies in his ability to face reality in all its senselessness; to accept it freely, without fear, without illusions–and to laugh at it” (Esslin 429). The absurd dramatists were the first to propagate this idea of acceptance in the face of absurdity. In doing so, they challenged the preconceptions of what does and does not constitute theatre. Essentially, the absurd dramatists redefined the art form and created a space in which succeeding movements could flourish.

Work cited : 

“The Theatre of the Absurd.” British Literature Wiki, sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/the-theatre-of-the-absurd/. 

Assignment 109

Rasa Theory

Name: Emisha Ravani

paper: 109 Literary Theory & Criticism and Indian Aesthetic

Roll no: 07

Enrollment no : 4069206420210031

Email id: emisharavani3459@gmail.com

Batch : 2021-2023(M.A sem 2) 

submitted to: S. B. Gardi Department of English, maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji bhavnager University

The word rasa appears in ancient Vedic literature. In Rigveda, it connotes a liquid, an extract and flavor.[12][note 1] In Atharvaveda, rasa in many contexts means "taste", and also the sense of "the sap of grain". According to Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe – a professor of Drama, rasa in the Upanishads refers to the "essence, self-luminous consciousness, quintessence" but also "taste" in some contexts.[12][note 2][note 3] In post-Vedic literature, the word generally connotes "extract, essence, juice or tasty liquid".[1][12]

Rasa in an aesthetic sense is suggested in the Vedic literature, but the oldest surviving manuscripts, with the rasa theory of Hinduism, are of Natya Shastra.

The theory of rasa is attributed to Bharata, a sage-priest who may have lived sometime between the 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE. It was developed by the rhetorician and philosopher Abhinavagupta (c. 1000), who applied it to all varieties of theatre and poetry. The principal human feelings, according to Bharata, are delight, laughter, sorrow, anger, energy, fear, disgust, heroism, and astonishment, all of which may be recast in contemplative form as the various rasas: erotic, comic, pathetic, furious, heroic, terrible, odious, marvelous, and quietistic. These rasas comprise the components of aesthetic experience. The power to taste rasa is a reward for merit in some previous existence.

What is ‘Rasa’? 

Rasa at one time meant ‘water’, ‘juice’ or ‘wine’. At another time it implied ‘essence’. In another context it meant ‘relish’ or ‘savouring’. There was a time when it indicated the primary constituents of medicine. It also meant ‘aesthetic pleasure’ or ‘enjoyment’ a meaning or association of meanings with which we are essentially concerned.

Rasa Theory finds its root in the late Vedic period in Atharvaveda (200 BC- 100 BC). But Bharata Muni is regarded the father of Indian Rasa Theory as he gave major statement in his book Natyashastra (1st century AD Approx) which is a Indian Treatise on performing arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music.

Bharata, the great rhetorician has tried to explain how this aesthetic pleasure takes place. He has tried to give the theory of ‘rasa’ in one sutra (aphorism). He says:

vibhava anubhava-vyabhichari-samyogad rasr-nisapattihi (N.S.6th ch).

विभावानु भाव व्यभिचारी संयोगाद रस निष्पतिः।

This means that rasa develops from the blending of vibhava, anubhava and vyabhichari. It manifests itself when the sthayibhava, the emotion of the reader is correlated with the following three aspects presented in a piece of creative literature (i) excitant (ii) ensuing response and (iii) transitory feelings.

These three should be combined into one. Many theoreticians have tried to explain the above mentioned aphorism in different way. Bhattlollata, Srisankuka, Bhattanayka and Abhinavagupta are the major commentators who have tried to explain the theory of rasa from their different and individual points of view.

Types of Rasa

Before we understand the structure of ‘rasa’ in detail. We must understand the following four terms in some detail. These are as follows:

Sthayibhava : permanent emotions or feelings.

Vyabhicharibhava: transitory (fleeting) emotions.

Vibhava : excitant or stimulating determinants.

Anubhava : Consequent or ensuing response.

Sthayibhava

Sthayibhava means permanent emotions inherent in all human beings. They are dormant, inborn and innate emotions that are acquired by training or education. They are permanent feelings deeply embedded in human psyche. They are eight in number but some rhetoricians have added three more.

Let us have a look at the main eight or nine sthayibhavas.

Sthayibhavas

Rati (Love)

Hasa (Laughter)

Soka (Grief)

Krodha (anger)

Utsaha (Enthusiasm)

Bhaya (fear).

Jugupsa (Disgust)

Vismaya (astonishment)

Nirveda (Indifference/renunciation).

Vatsalya (Affection for children).

Sneha or Sahacarya (Desire for the companionship particular friend).

 

These sthayibhavas are manifested into the following rasas:

Sl. No.    Sthayibhava    Rasa

1.    Rati    Sringara (Erotic)

2.    Hasa    Hasya (Comic)

3.    Soka    Karuna (Compassionate)

4.    Krodha    Raudra (Wrathful)

5.    Utsaha    Vir (Heroic)

6.    Bhaya    Bhayanaka (Terrifying)

7.    Jugupsa    Bibhatsa (Odious)

8.    Vismaya    Adbhuta (Marvellous)

9.    Nirveda    Santa (Tranquil)

Sthayibhavas are comparatively stable and last longer. They are frequent and more powerful. Generally, all human beings experience them now and then. Sancharibhavas contain ancilliary emotions. The sancharibhavas or vyabhicharibhavas are said to be 33 in number.

They are as follows:

Sancharibhavas or Vyabhicharibhavas

Nirveda (Despondency or indifference)

Glani (Weakness languishing)

Sanka (Apprehension)

Asura (Envy or jealousy)

Mada (Intoxication)

Srama (Fatigue)

Alasya (Indolence)

Dainya (Depression)

Cinta (Anxiety)

Moha (Delusion)

Smrti (Recollection memory)

Dhrti (Contentment)

Vrida (Shame)

Capalata (Inconstancy)

Harsa (Joy)

Avega (Agitation)

Gaiva (Arrogance)

Jadata (Stupor)

Visada (Despair)

Antsukya (Longing)

Nidra (Sleep)

Apasmara (Epilepsy)

Supta (Dreaming)

Vibodha (Awakening)

Amarsa (Indignation)

Avahitta (Dissimulation)

Ugrata (Ferocity)

Mati (Resolve)

Vyadhi (Sickness)

Unmada (Insanity)

Marana (Death)

Trasa (Terror)

Vitarka (Trepidation)

There are sattvikabhavas or involuntary states or inbuilt body responses besides other bhavas. They are eight in number.

Stambha (paralysis)

Pralaya (fainting)

Romanca (horripilation)

Sveda (Perspiration)

Asru (Tears)

Vairarnya (Change of colour)

Vipathu (Trembling)

Vaisvarya or svarahbhanga (Change in voice/ breaking of the voice).

Vibhava

The vibhavas or determinants help in development of a feeling in sentiment. These vibhavas are of two kinds: alambana (supporting) and uddipana (excitant).

Anubhava

Anubhavas are the consequents or reactions to these deternminants. Thus according to Bharata, through the union of vibhava, anubhava and sancharibhava rasa is manifested.

Let us take an example of karuna rasa. The view play, for example, experiences the feeling of grief (se manifest in the performer. A number of vibhavas are such cases such as death of some loved one, misfortunes, sufferings etc. They depend on visaya, asraya, and uddipana. vibhava of soka takes different visible forms depending on the nature of the experienced. Abhinaya indicates the sthayibhavas. Bharata uses the word ‘nispatti’ (rendering) of rasa through bhavas in sahrdaya. In the sentiment of soka (grief), there may be anubhavas like mourning (vilapa), weeping (rudana), shedding of tears etc. Sattvikbhavas would be indicated through tears, change of voice etc. In abhinaya, we find actions like weeping, paleness of face, change of voice, deep breathing, fainting, immobility, loss of memory etc.

According to Bharata, each rasa has three subtypes based on three gunas sattva, rajas and tamasa. The quality of vibhava, the source of sthayibhava determines the types of correlated rasa. Even karuna rasa may be sattvika, rajasika or tamasika depending on the cause of grief. For example, grief caused by destruction of righteousness is sattvika, grief caused by loss of worldly reputation or wealth is rajasika and grief caused by the personal loss of one’s own is tamasika. Thus, the theory of rasa is related with yoga as well as the Vedantic philosophy of India. In the succeeding chapters, we shall deal with individual ‘rasas’ in some details.

ninth rasa was added by later authors. This addition had to undergo a good deal of struggle between the sixth and the tenth centuries, before it could be accepted by the majority of the Alankarikas, and the expression "Navarasa" (the nine rasas), could come into vogue.

Śāntam: Peace or tranquility.[24] deity: Vishnu. Colour: perpetual white.

Shānta-rasa functions as an equal member of the set of rasas, but it is simultaneously distinct as being the most clear form of aesthetic bliss. Abhinavagupta likens it to the string of a jeweled necklace; while it may not be the most appealing for most people, it is the string that gives form to the necklace, allowing the jewels of the other eight rasas to be relished. Relishing the rasas and particularly shānta-rasa is hinted as being as-good-as but never-equal-to the bliss of Self-realization experienced by yogis.

Characteristics or Rasa

But before we conclude, let us enumerate the salient characteristics or rasa :

It is akhanda, complete and indivisible. It is a blending of all the three elements. One element alone cannot produce it.

It is sva-prakash, self-manifested. It needs no other agency. It is manifested on its own when the above mentioned three elements are finely blended.

It is free from the touch of any other perception. This means that to enjoy it, we must be wholly focused and concentrated.

It is a sheer joy. It is a pure state of consciousness. It is higher than the sensual pleasures that we derive from food, sleep, or intoxicants etc.

It is known as the joy that elevates one to brahmananda, the joy supreme. It can be compared with the sublime joy or ecstasy that Longinus refers to in his views on ‘The sublime.’

It is beyond ordinary, physical and material, worldly joy. It is a sense of wonder or of surprise. It broadens one’s vision and understanding of life.

The poet through the manifestation of ‘rasa’ makes us partake the various experiences and emotions that we may not have experienced in our individual lives.

It is the spiritual experience that makes man identify with the spirit divine which is one and unfragmented whole. He experiences the feeling of oneness (advaita) through the experience of ‘rasa.’

Work cited : 

Sarkar, Somnath, et al. “Rasa Theory of Indian Aestheticsu.” All About English Literature, 20 July 2021.

Assignment 108

Robert Frost's poems

Name: Emisha Ravani

paper: 108 The American Literature

Roll no: 07

Enrollment no : 4069206420210031

Email id: emisharavani3459@gmail.com

Batch : 2021-2023(M.A sem 2) 

submitted to: S. B. Gardi Department of English, maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji bhavnager University

Robert Frost's poems

English literature is having so many great literary figures in each genre. Robert Frost is one of them, he is a famous poet by his poetris like Stopping by woods in Snowy Evening, Fire and Ice, The Road Not Taken etc.Robert Frost was born in San Francisco, but his family moved to Lawrence, Massachusetts, in 1884 following his father’s death. The move was actually a return, for Frost’s ancestors were originally New Englanders, and Frost became famous for his poetry’s engagement with New England locales, identities, and themes. 

Frost graduated from Lawrence High School, in 1892, as class poet (he also shared the honor of co-valedictorian with his wife-to-be Elinor White), and two years later, the New York Independent accepted his poem entitled “My Butterfly,” launching his status as a professional poet with a check for $15.00. Frost's first book was published around the age of 40, but he would go on to win a record four Pulitzer Prizes and become the most famous poet of his time, before his death at the age of 88.

 

To celebrate his first publication, Frost had a book of six poems privately printed; two copies of Twilight were made—one for himself and one for his fiancee. Over the next eight years, however, he succeeded in having only 13 more poems published. During this time, Frost sporadically attended Dartmouth and Harvard and earned a living teaching school and, later, working a farm in Derry, New Hampshire. But in 1912, discouraged by American magazines’ constant rejection of his work, he took his family to England, where he found more professional success.

 Continuing to write about New England, he had two books published, A Boy’s Will (1913) and North of Boston (1914), which established his reputation so that his return to the United States in 1915 was as a celebrated literary figure. Holt put out an American edition of North of Boston in 1915, and periodicals that had once scorned his work now sought it. 

 

Frost’s position in American letters was cemented with the publication of North of Boston, and in the years before his death he came to be considered the unofficial poet laureate of the United States. On his 75th birthday, the US Senate passed a resolution in his honor which said, “His poems have helped to guide American thought and humor and wisdom, setting forth to our minds a reliable representation of ourselves and of all men.” In 1955, the State of Vermont named a mountain after him in Ripton, the town of his legal residence; and at the presidential inauguration of John F. Kennedy in 1961, Frost was given the unprecedented honor of being asked to read a poem.

 Frost wrote a poem called “Dedication” for the occasion, but could not read it given the day’s harsh sunlight. He instead recited “The Gift Outright,” which Kennedy had originally asked him to read, with a revised, more forward-looking, last line.

Though Frost allied himself with no literary school or movement, the imagists helped at the start to promote his American reputation. Poetry: A Magazine of Verse published his work before others began to clamor for it. It also published a review by Ezra Pound of the British edition of A Boy’s Will, which Pound said “has the tang of the New Hampshire woods, and it has just this utter sincerity. It is not post-Miltonic or post-Swinburnian or post Kiplonian. This man has the good sense to speak naturally and to paint the thing, the thing as he sees it.”

 Amy Lowell reviewed North of Boston in the New Republic, and she, too, sang Frost’s praises: “He writes in classic metres in a way to set the teeth of all the poets of the older schools on edge; and he writes in classic metres, and uses inversions and cliches whenever he pleases, those devices so abhorred by the newest generation. He goes his own way, regardless of anyone else’s rules, and the result is a book of unusual power and sincerity.” In these first two volumes, Frost introduced not only his affection for New England themes and his unique blend of traditional meters and colloquialism, but also his use of dramatic monologues and dialogues. “Mending Wall,” the leading poem in North of Boston, describes the friendly argument between the speaker and his neighbor as they walk along their common wall replacing fallen stones; their differing attitudes toward “boundaries” offer symbolic significance typical of the poems in these early collections. 

 

Mountain Interval marked Frost’s turn to another kind of poem, a brief meditation sparked by an object, person or event. Like the monologues and dialogues, these short pieces have a dramatic quality. “Birches,” discussed above, is an example, as is “The Road Not Taken,” in which a fork in a woodland path transcends the specific. The distinction of this volume, the Boston Transcript said, “is that Mr. Frost takes the lyricism of A Boy’s Will and plays a deeper music and gives a more intricate variety of experience.” 

The Road Not Taken 

BY ROBERT FROST

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry I could not travel both

And be one traveler, long I stood

And looked down one as far as I could

To where it bent in the undergrowth;

Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,

Because it was grassy and wanted wear;

Though as for that the passing there

Had worn them really about the same,

And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.

Oh, I kept the first for another day!

Yet knowing how way leads on to way,

I doubted if I should ever come back.

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:

Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—

I took the one less traveled by,

And that has made all the difference. 

The Road Not Taken’ by Robert Frost is quite a popular poem; unfortunately, however, its popularity comes mainly from the simple act of misreading. With this poem, Frost has given the world a piece of writing that every individual can relate to, especially when it comes to the concept of choices and opportunities in life.

A majority of the time, this poem is quoted and used with an interpretation that is not exactly “correct”. The popular belief is that Frost meant for this poem to be about hope, success, and defying the odds by choosing a path well, “less traveled by.” On the other hand, if the poem is reviewed, it is quite obvious that it has fairly the opposite connotation.

It is Robert Frost’s first poem in his book “Mountain Interval” (1916). A popular pleasantly misconstrued poem since its release, its simplicity, and way with words demonstrate the skill of Frost’s pen.

Stopping By Woods on a Snowy Evening

by Robert Frost

Whose woods these are I think I know.

His house is in the village though;

He will not see me stopping here

To watch his woods fill up with snow.

My little horse must think it queer

To stop without a farmhouse near

Between the woods and frozen lake

The darkest evening of the year.

He gives his harness bells a shake

To ask if there is some mistake.

The only other sound’s the sweep

Of easy wind and downy flake.

The woods are lovely, dark and deep,

But I have promises to keep,

And miles to go before I sleep,

And miles to go before I sleep.

This poem was published in 1923. It was written to capture the conflict between man and nature and also to highlight the difference between wishes and obligations we face in our lives. However, it has become one of the most popular poems in English literature.

“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” as a poem about nature: As the poem is about nature, it has been written from the perspective of an adult, who stops by the woods to enjoy the mesmerizing beauty of nature. The expression of stopping given in the first stanza continues until the traveler decides to restart his journey.  The expression of not knowing the woods and then realizing one’s duties mark the central point of the poem. However, what stays in the minds of the readers is the eye-catching and bewitching beauty of woods in the snowy evening.

Major themes in “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”: The poem comprises the thoughts of an adult, why he stops and why he wants to stay in the lap of nature, forgetting all his worldly affairs. The traveler wants to take a moment to pause in the quiet woods to watch the snow falling. He says he knows whose woods are these, but he is sure the owner of the woods will not notice his presence because he is in the village.

He is tempted to stay longer, but the pull of obligations and considerable distance force him to leave the woods. As he says that he has to travel a lot, it means he has to perform a lot of duties. Therefore, he puts his wishes aside and starts his journey again. This poem is about the boundaries and limits in which human beings pass their lives, and which do not allow them to get derailed from their respective paths.

Work cited : 

Frost, Robert. “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert...” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation

Frost, Robert. “The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost.” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation

“Robert Frost.” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation

Assignment 107

Existentialism in Waiting for Godot

Name: Emisha Ravani

paper: 107 The Twentieth Century Literature : From Would War || to the end of the century

Roll no: 07

Enrollment no : 4069206420210031

Email id: emisharavani3459@gmail.com

Batch : 2021-2023(M.A sem 2) 

submitted to: S. B. Gardi Department of English, maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji bhavnager University

Existentialism in Waiting for Godot

Existentialism is an American theory which is based on the none conformity ideas there are many figures in this theory we will discuss further. It is the philosophical theory which contains many ideas itself like individualism, role play by nature, soul connection to the God. Also it deals with intellectual and intuition power of humans. So let's see further idea about it and how it has applied to the play Waiting for Godot. 

Existentialism focuses on concrete human being or “existence”. An important feature of atheistic existentialism is the argument that existence precedes essence (the reverse of many traditional forms of philosophy) for it is held that man fashions his own existence and only exists by so doing, and, in that process, and by the choice of what he does or does not do, gives essence to that existence.

It is generally agreed that existentialism derives from the thinking of Soren Kierkegaard (1813-55), and especially in his books Fear and Trembling (1843), The Concept of Dread (1844) and Sickness Unto Death (1848).

Jean-Paul Sartre is the hierophant of modern existentialism and his version, expressed through his novels, plays and philosophical writings, is the one that has caught on and been the most widely influential. In Sartre’s vision man is born into a kind of void (le néant), a mud (le visqueux). He has the liberty to remain in this mud and thus lead a passive, supine, acquiescent existence (like Oblomov and Samuel Beckett’s sad tatterdemalions) in a “semi-conscious state” and in which he is scarcely aware of himself. In L’ Existentialisme est un humanisme (1946) Sartre expressed the belief that man can emerge from his passive and indeterminate condition and, by an act of will.

Apart from Sartre, some of the main exponents of existentialism have been Albert Camus, Simone de Beauvoir. Merleau-Ponty and Jean Wahl.

The play, Waiting For Godot, is centred around two men, Estragon and Vladimir, who are waiting for a Mr. Godot, of whom they know little. Estragon admits himself that he may never recognize Mr. Godot, “Personally I wouldn’t know him if I ever saw him.” (p.23). Estragon also remarks, “… we hardly know him.” (p.23), which illustrates to an audience that the identity of Mr. Godot is irrelevant.

ESTRAGON… Let’s go.

VLADIMIR. We can’t.

ESTRAGON. Why not?

VLADIMIR. We’re waiting for Godot. 

Estragon and Vladimir have made the choice of waiting, without instruction or guidance, as Vladimir says, “He didn’t say for sure he’d come” (p.14), but decides to “wait till we know exactly how we stand” (p.18).

Albert Camus, an existentialist writer, believed that boredom or waiting, which is essentially the breakdown of routine or habit, caused people to think seriously about their identity, as Estragon and Vladimir do. The tramps continually attempt to prove that they exist, in order to keep their sanity: We always find something, eh Didi, to give us the impression that we exist?”

Waiting in the play induces boredom as a theme. Ironically, Beckett attempts to create a similar nuance of boredom within the audience by the mundane repetition of dialogue and actions. Vladimir and Estragon constantly ponder and ask questions, many of which are rhetorical or are left unanswered. The German existentialist philosopher Martin Heidegger expressed clearly that human beings can never hope to understand why they are here. The tramps repetitive inspection of their empty hats perhaps symbolizes mankind’s vain search for answers within the vacuum of a universe. 

Estragon and Vladimir attempt to put order into their lives by waiting for a Godot who never arrives. They continually subside into the futility of their situation, reiterating the phrase “Nothing to be done.” Vladimir also resolves with the notion that life is futile, or nothing is to be done. 

ESTRAGON: (anxious). And we? … Where do we come in? 

Estragon’s question is left unanswered by Vladimir. Beckett conveys a universal message that pondering the impossible questions, that arise from waiting, cause pain, anxiety, inactivity and destroy people from within. Both Vladimir and Estragon ponder suicide by hanging themselves from the tree, but are unable to act through to anxiety, as Estragon states,

Don’t let’s do anything. It’s safer.” 

Both characters decide to leave but are immobile.

ESTRAGON: Well, shall we go?

VLADIMIR: Yes, let’s go.

They do not move.” 

Estragon and Vladimir constantly pass the time throughout the entire play to escape the pain of waiting and to possibly to stop themselves from thinking or contemplating too deeply. Vladimir expresses this idea at the end of the play, ‘Habit is a great deadener’, suggesting that habit is like an analgesic numbing the individual.

Beckett deliberately employs the repetition of themes, speech and action to highlight the futility and habit of life. Gogo and Didi frequently repeat phrases, such as, “Nothing to be done”. Their actions consist of ritually inspecting their hats. Nothingness is what the two tramps are essentially fighting against and reason why they talk. Beckett suggests that activity and inactivity oppose one another: thought arising from inactivity and activity terminating thought. In the second Act they admit that habit suppresses their thoughts and keeps their minimal sanity:

ESTRAGON: … we are incapable of keeping silent.

VLADIMIR: You’re right we’re inexhaustible.

ESTRAGON: It’s so we won’t think. 

Estragon and Vladimir symbolize the human condition as a period of waiting. Most of society spend their lives searching for goals, such as exam or jobs, in the hope of attaining a higher level or advancing. Beckett suggests that no-one advances through the inexorable passage of time. Vladimir states this, “One is what one is. … The essential doesn’t change.”

Beckett expresses in the play that time is an illusion or a ‘cancer’, as he referred to it, that feeds the individual the lie that they progress, while destroying them. Estragon and Vladimir through the play end as they begin, have made no progression: waiting for Godot. The few leaves that have grown on the tree by the second act may symbolize hope but more feasibly represent the illusive passage of time. Beckett wrote in his Proust essay that time is the ‘poisonous’ condition we are born to, constantly changing us without our knowing, finally killing us without our assent.

Time also erodes Estragon’s memory. Time causes their energies and appetites to ebb. Time destroys Pozzo’s sight. Existentialist theories propose that the choices of the present are important and that time causes perceptional confusion.

The play consists of two acts which represent two cycles of time or two mirrors reflecting endlessly. The pattern of time appears to be circular or cyclic, as opposed to linear. Linear time seems to have broken down, as events do not develop with inevitable climaxes historically. The boy returns with the same message, Godot never comes and tomorrow never seems to arrive.

Estragon and Vladimir are moving relentlessly towards a presumably unobtainable event, the coming of Godot. Estragon portrays the horror of their uneventful repetitive existence:

“Nothing happens, nobody comes, nobody goes, it’s awful!” 

The play is deliberately unnatural and abstract because it is intended to have universal meaning. The world of Estragon and Vladimir is fragmented of time and place and is submerged with vague recollections of culture and the past. For example Estragon remembers the Bible with uncertainty:

“I remember the maps with of the Holy Land. Coloured they were” 

The lack of knowledge of the tramps’ culture and past symbolize the breakdown of culture and tradition in the twentieth century. Estragon and Vladimir’s uncertainty symbolizes the uncertainty of living in the twentieth century and more generally the uncertainty of existence. Estragon is uncertain about their location and timing inquiring,

“You’re sure it was here?… You’re sure it was this evening?”

Beckett displays the sheer randomness of life through the events of the play. Life is portrayed as unfair, risky and arbitrary. Estragon shows the chance involved in the health of his lungs stating, “My left lung is very weak! … But my right lung is as sound as a bell!” Estragon and Vladimir ponder why one out of the three thieves was saved, which displays the luck or misfortune involved in life. The chaos of this world portrays the absurdity of the characters within the play.

Beckett uses of bathos, staccato-like speech or actions and vulgarity flavoured with black or tragicomic humour to present a reductive view on human nature. Vladimir’s perpetual need to urinate illustrates one of those vulgarities. Beckett’s pessimism is understandable. He lived through world wars, fighting the Second World War for the French resistance against the Nazis. He would have witnessed the atrocities of human nature, chaos, the pointlessness of violence and the breakdown of communication, He would inevitably spent time during the war helplessly waiting for something to happen.

Estragon injects bathos into the serious debate about the thief who was saved by Christ by declaring with bluntness a reductive statement, “People are bloody ignorant apes.”

The Seventeenth-century French philosopher Blaise Pascal viewed human life in terms of paradoxes: The human self is itself a paradox and · contradiction. Estragon and Vladimir are full of contradictions, as their emotions often change erratically from violence to sympathy, from the philosophical to the banal. Pozzo’s cruelty towards Lucky emphasizes the contradictions in human nature. They share a master-slave relationship in which Pozzo can be the worst of all tyrants, shouting authoritarian instructions at Lucky, such as, “Up pig!”

To conclude we say that the whole picture in Waiting for Godot shows a pretty hopelessness. Neither time nor existence, neither reality nor memory or the past have any meaning or significance. Acts are meaningless, time does not flow consecutively, memory seems deceptive, existence is an impression or perhaps a dream and happiness is extremely and affliction is crystal clear through the situation of two tramps. They are on the point of becoming hollow philosophies of existence but demand no other equipment in an audience than the bond of common perception.

Work cited : 

Sarkar, S., & SarkarHello, S. (2022, February 20). Existentialism in waiting for godot: Waiting for godot as an existentialist play. All About English Literature. Retrieved May 9, 2022

Assignment 106

Symbolism in The Great Gatsby

Name: Emisha Ravani

paper: 106 The Twentieth Century Literature 1900 to World War ||

Roll no: 07

Enrollment no : 4069206420210031

Email id: emisharavani3459@gmail.com

Batch : 2021-2023(M.A sem 2) 

submitted to: S. B. Gardi Department of English, maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji bhavnager University

What Is Symbolism?

Symbolism is a literary device wherein words, people, markings, locations, or abstract ideas represent something beyond their literal meaning. The use of symbolism is not confined to works of literature; examples of symbolism appear in every corner of our everyday life. Road signs, logos, and emojis all employ symbolism, evoking ideas or moods.

Symbols are like magical carpet bags with unlimited storage space, where you can pack masses and masses of meaning and tuck them neatly into your narrative. Take poetry, for example. It's the shortest literary form and arguably relies the most on symbols. It's a very condensed form and can take a lot of work to unpack exhaustively. Virtually each word can be examined for its symbolic value. So very short works can, through symbols, convey enormous content.

Symbols allow for implicit layers of meaning in works to resonate on a thematic level. You can tell things explicitly, or indicate things dramatically, but the symbolic elements of narrative, even if we don't work to unpack them, speak to our unconscious or dreaming minds. The network of symbols in a particular work is sort of like its soul, or maybe its essence.

Types of Symbols

A symbol most commonly presents itself as a word, a figure of speech, an event or a character. There are a number of different ways a symbol might appear in a piece of literature, suggesting an array of different meanings. A symbol can take the form of a color, for example, red for passion or danger. The spring season might symbolize a new beginning. Types of weather conditions, such as fog, might represent the inability to think clearly. Other forms of symbolism include animals, the human body and objects.

Symbols and the Physical World

Symbolism can represent something that is happening in the physical world. For example, a lightning bolt might strike a tree while a murder is taking place, and the lightning hitting the tree could be a symbol of the killing. Similarly, a flower might symbolize youth, while an old, dying oak tree might symbolize old age.

Symbols Vs. Non-Symbols

The reader should not take everything in a literary work as symbolic. A plastic bag does not symbolize anything on its own. If, however, the bag is described as being gently blown around by the wind, drifting with no clear direction, it may symbolize wandering, or drifting aimlessly.

Symbol Cliches

Using symbolism can be as basic as inserting a symbol that can be connected to an action or event taking place in the plot. This is easy to do and adds to what the writer is trying to say, but using it too often can turn a good story and potentially good writing, into a series of obvious, unsubtle clichés.

Symbols as Part of Literature

Another slightly more difficult, but often more effective use of symbolism in literature can be seen when the writer has made the symbol a vital part of the work, not just a quick addition. Take the example of a man struggling with a dying relationship. The story could start in summer and slowly progress into winter as he grows colder and more distant with his partner. The changing of the seasons, from a warm, happy summer to a cold and frozen winter might symbolize his ever-darkening relationship.

Lightning might symbolize a violent act, such as murder, in literature.

In any piece of literary work, symbolism can be used to add or represent meaning that goes beyond what is literally being said. The actions and events within the plot can be looked at on one level, while literary symbols within the writing can be considered on another level.

 

Many students do not realize that the ability to identify symbols is important beyond the confines of their classes. The knowledge improves speech and writing and aids not only in interpretation of literature, but with interpretation of the world at large. Learn how to understand when an author is using a symbol, and how that symbol exemplifies the theme of the piece.

Distinguish between plot and theme. Plot refers to events that take place in the work, whereas theme refers to what the author attempts to convey by writing about them. For example, the plot of "Star Wars" could be expressed as follows: "A boy whose home and family were destroyed by the ruthless Galactic Empire teams up with a band of rebels to disable said empire's ultimate weapon." The themes in "Star Wars," on the other hand, could be anything you want them to be. Here's a relatively indisputable one: "The passionate will triumph over the dispassionate."

Read your story through from beginning to end. Repeat as necessary until you fully understand the plot. Then write the plot just as above: a single sentence summarizing the work. Based on that sentence, think about what the themes could be. Jot down as many as you can think of, even if they contradict one another. Feel free to write them in the form of morals. If it is not immediately apparent what the author wants you to believe, you may write them as two ideas in conflict with each other. Using the "Star Wars" example, you could write "passionate versus dispassionate" in place of "the passionate will triumph over the dispassionate."

Scan the story again. This time, tag (underline, highlight or jot down on a separate piece of paper) nouns that turn up more frequently than others. Examples from "Star Wars" might be "dark" and "galaxy."

Elaborate on inherent connotations. Let's look at the word "dark." Since before humans picked up pens, they've been afraid of what lies beyond their immediate vision. To a caveman, venturing out alone into the dark meant becoming susceptible to predators; to an author--even a contemporary one--you can be fairly sure that "dark" means something sinister, evil or isolated. If you're lucky enough to have tagged any of these freebies, look at them closely in relation to your theme. The theme in the example was, "The passionate will triumph over the dispassionate." You should immediately see the link between "evil" and "dispassionate," but don't stop there. What about "dark" as another word for "isolation?" Are the dispassionate isolated? Is Darth Vader--the "Dark Lord" himself--isolated? You could make a good case for it, based on the events of the movie. Try to do the same with your story. Don't assume that any tagged word is relevant to your theme in just one way.

Extend keywords in the theme to discussion points. On the other hand, the words you've flagged may not have such obvious connotations. Look at the word "galaxy." Nothing comes to mind, right? So let the theme you wrote down earlier help you. In "Star Wars," the rebels obviously represent the passionate and the Empire the dispassionate, but how is the galaxy related to these parties? You haven't yet addressed what there is to be passionate about. The Empire wants control of the galaxy, and the rebels want freedom to use the galaxy as they wish. Does that remind you of any resources right here on your home planet? Land? Wealth? In order to fully understand the symbol, replace the word "galaxy" with the word "resources." Try the same exercise with the words you've tagged in your story. Based on the theme you've written, what broader meaning could these words have? What could they represent that is essential not only to the plot, but to all human life? Keep in mind that Step 4 still applies: There is not one right answer.

Read the story one more time, mentally replacing your tagged symbols with the word(s) or concept(s) you believe they represent. Are there any that fall apart when you pay close attention to their context? Don't be discouraged. Simply repeat the exercise using another of your ideas.

Whether they're ruthless tornadoes or torrential hurricanes, storms can add atmosphere and conflict to a personal narrative or story. The use of vivid description is a crucial tool for bringing these weather phenomena to life on paper and moving your plot forward. Using figurative language and active verbs can help you place readers right in the middle of the rain, wind and thunder.

Mighty Metaphors and Storm Similes

A simile is a type of description that makes an explicit comparison between two things using the words "like" or "as." A metaphor, by contrast, is a direct comparison that does not use these words. You can use these devices to create surprising descriptions of your storm. If you're describing a hailstorm, for example, you might use a simile to write, "The hailstones clattered to the ground like marbles spilled from a box." To use a metaphor, you might write, "An avalanche of hailstones fell from the sky."

The Sound of Storms

In real life, the sounds of nature are often key indicators of approaching storms. You can bring these sound effects to your descriptions by using onomatopoeia, a device where words mimic the sounds of their meaning. For example, if a thunderstorm figures prominently in your story, the thunder could "rumble" or "boom," rain could "patter" against the windows" and wind could "rush" across a field. Try making a list of all the sounds the storm in your narrative might involve and brainstorm onomatopoeic words to describe them.

The Character of Storms

If a storm is central to your story's conflict, you might consider having the weather literally take on a life of its own. Personification occurs when a writer gives human characteristics, such as actions and emotions, to an inanimate object. If your characters are trapped in open water during a hurricane, you might write, "The angry waves smacked against the side of the boat." Although water can't feel anger, the description of the waves as "angry" adds emotional texture and characterization to the storm.

Vivid Verbs

Because bad weather can often get out of control, describing a storm is not the time to skimp on verb usage. Weak verbs, such as "was" or "were," drain your descriptions of energy rather than infuse them with detail. Using specific, active verbs for the storm's motion gives readers a more detailed image of the story's events. For example, the sentence, "The dark sky was lit up by lightning," is a good start, but revising it to include an active verb can make the description even more forceful: "Lightning flashed across the sky."

Literary devices are important to anyone who uses or studies words in a creative context. Ill-used literary devices can make a story or other literary work seem weak, flat or underdeveloped. Well-used literary devices have the opposite effect, helping writers create dynamic, strong and interesting stories.

Allusion

An allusion is a reference to a well-known person, event, place or phrase. The writer assumes the reader will understand the allusion, which may be crucial to the plot. Genre writers -- those specializing in fiction such as romance, mystery or science fiction -- may allude to places and characters from within their genre, while writers for a general audience tend to use allusions that do not require specialized knowledge by the reader. Examples include: "He's as brave as Han Solo" and "She was as lovely as Helen of Troy."

Ambiguity

Ambiguity gives multiple meanings to a sentence or phrase, such as Mercutio's line in "Romeo and Juliet" after he is fatally wounded. He says, "Call on me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man," meaning he could be sad or, more likely, in his grave. Writers often use ambiguity to underscore the complexity of an issue or to help the character at hand confuse his or her opponents. Ambiguity can be useful in mystery stories, where a character may take a phrase to mean one thing although the speaker means something else.

Foreshadowing

Writers use foreshadowing to tell readers what to expect. This may come in the form of events or phrases that hint at actions to come later in the plot. Foreshadowing can be obvious or very subtle, creating suspense because the readers aren’t sure what to expect. For instance, a writer may focus on describing a weapon in the setting of a room, foreshadowing the fact that it will be used later.

Imagery

Imagery is arguably one of the most important literary devices. Writers use imagery to describe scenes, settings and characters to help readers visualize what is happening in the story. Imagery can be as simple as describing a character's physical surroundings or delve into more complex descriptions of the character's emotions and thoughts. For instance, T.S. Eliot uses imagery to describe the London fog in "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" when he writes, "The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window panes ... licked its tongue into the corners of the evening."

Metaphor

Metaphor is a form of figurative language that compares two things that are unrelated in an effort to give imagery and meaning to one of the things. Metaphors often state that one thing is another; for instance, "Her skin was ivory and her hair was flowing silk." The woman is not actually made of ivory and silk, but those words describe the woman's skin and hair, furthering the image.

Conflict

Conflict in a story is a struggle between two opposing characters or forces. Conflict often composes the main part of the plot or theme in a narrative. Conflict can involve two struggling characters, a character against society, natural forces, the supernatural or an internal conflict. For instance, in "Romeo and Juliet" the conflict is between the feuding Montagues and Capulets.

Climax

The climax is the turning point of a work, often the point of the greatest action, suspense, tension or emotional intensity. The author may use climax to describe the final battle of a work, reveal a mystery or show whether or not the main character is successful at his or her endeavors. For instance, in the movie "Clue" the climax comes near the end when those responsible for all of the deaths are revealed.

Symbols in The Great Gatsby

The Green Light

The green light on Daisy Buchanan's East Egg dock that Jay Gatsby can somewhat see from his dock across the water in West Egg is a symbol of the unreachable. It symbolizes the title character's yearning for what is in his line of sight but remains out of his reach. After all, many things divide East Egg from West Egg beyond just a body of water, including class, social status, power, and more.

Green is one of the colors in The Great Gatsby that conveys symbolic meaning. It's important that this light is green, as green is the color of the "new money" that Jay now has and hopes will help him win Daisy's love.

Gatsby's Extravagant House

The enormous mansion that Gatsby purchases with his newly gained wealth symbolizes the extravagance of the Jazz Age along with its emptiness. While he hopes that his ability to purchase the mansion will help him win Daisy's love, it's ultimately Daisy's cousin, Nick Carraway, who spends the most time with Gatsby. Nick lives next door to Gatsby.

The house provides a venue for Gatsby to show off his great wealth to the beautiful people but doesn't provide him with acceptance into the upper crust of society or the love of his golden girl, Daisy Buchannan.

Nick's Mantle Clock

There is a mantel clock in Nick's house. When Nick invites Daisy and Gatsby to tea at his house, the clock is a focal point during the interaction. Because Gatsby and Daisy had not seen each other for five years, the clock symbolizes the passage of time.

During the gathering, Gatsby almost knocks the clock off the mantel, which of course would have caused it to break. This symbolizes his desire to return to a previous time, the time when he and Daisy had been together, back to before she married Tom Buchanan, but when Gatsby did not have money. The clock also symbolizes Gatsby's hope for the present — that he now has what it will take to win Daisy's love.

Gatsby's Parties

While Gatsby's mansion is all but empty most of the time, he does frequently host glamorous parties. The parties occur so frequently throughout the book that they are actually a motif. The parties symbolize the glamourous lifestyle of the Roaring Twenties, the flashy spending of someone with "new money" seeking to impress those who will never accept him, and the corruption of the American Dream.

The parties are empty and meaningless, just as the guests are vain and empty inside. Most don't even know who Gatsby is but attend week after week to partake in the extravagance they believe represents the American Dream.

Gatsby's Automobiles

Cars have long been considered status symbols. With that in mind, the fact that Gatsby has a collection of cars shouldn't be surprising. They're yet another symbol of extravagance and emptiness, as one person can't possibly need as many cars as the title character owns. Of course, Gatsby's purchasing habits aren't about meeting his basic needs. His cars are not just a means of transportation.

The color yellow is used in the book multiple times, including with regards to Gatsby's bright yellow Rolls Royce. Yellow is an important symbol, because it's almost gold, but not quite. Daisy and Tom come from "old money" — the true gold of "real" wealth. Yellow symbolizes that even though Gatsby has money, it's not quite the same as what the upper class, born-into-money characters have.

The T.J. Eckleburg Billboard

The neglected billboard originally erected to promote Dr. T.J. Eckleburg's optometry practice serves as a symbol of corruption and a lack of values. The dominant element of the billboard is a person's eyes emphasized by a pair of eyeglasses, staring down at the motorists who zoom by on their way to doing whatever they want, without consideration for morality or ethics.

The book's characters drive past the billboard en route to engage in infidelity and other immoral acts. No matter where they go or what they do, the eyes are watching, yet no one seems to care. One character, Wilson, whose wife was having an affair with Daisy's husband, even equates the eyes on the billboard to being watched by God.

Work cited:

Shore, Victoria. “What Is the Purpose of Symbols in Literature?” Pen and the Pad, 17 Feb. 2022,. 

White, Mary Gormandy. “7 Significant Symbols in the Great Gatsby.”