Paper : Echoes of the Collective Unconscious: Jungian Insights into Characters in 'The Lanka's Princess

Name : Emisha Ravani

Designation : Research scholar at Central University of Gujrat

Contact mail: emisharavani3459@gmail.com

Title of the paper : Echoes of the Collective Unconscious: Jungian Insights into Characters in 'The Lanka's Princess

Abstract: This study delves into the character of Surpanakha as portrayed by Kavita Kane, employing Jungian theory as a critical lens. By examining the storyline and characters through this perspective, the research aims to uncover novel insights into the reinterpretation of mythology by Kane. It explores the dynamics of the Ego (conscious), personal unconscious, and collective unconscious within the human psyche. While we typically acknowledge only our conscious mind, the personal and collective unconscious realms remain largely hidden, influencing our behaviour and actions. Mythology, transcending cultural boundaries, is shaped by universal archetypes inherited in human genes, manifesting in our collective unconscious. Surpanakha's journey is characterised by a relentless pursuit of revenge born from her enduring suffering and mistreatment, illustrating the profound impact of the collective unconscious on the individual psyche.

Key words : Lanka’s Princess, Kavita Kane, Jungian theory, archetype, Surpanakha

Introduction :

Myths permeate every corner of global culture, serving as narratives to elucidate natural occurrences, elucidate origins, and delineate the progression of civilizations. At their core, myths provide solace by imbuing a sense of structure and significance into an otherwise tumultuous existence. Retelling of myths is an act of telling the stories which are already told to people before. But the aim is to make the stories available with all kinds of connection like socio cultural, political. Contemporary writers are successfully penning retelling mythology. This paper contains a archetypal way to look at the book Lanka’s Princess by Kavita Kane and try to drag attention to her unique style and minute observations too.

“If readers already come to the table knowing who a character is or how a plot goes, you can use that to twist their expectations.”

Annie Sullivan

About Author :

Kavita Kane, renowned for her six bestselling novels, has emerged as a revolutionary figure in Indian literature, particularly for her groundbreaking incorporation of feminism into mythology. Through her eight novels, she explores the narratives of lesser-known women in Indian mythology, including "Karna’s Wife" (2013), "Sita’s Sister" (2014), "Menaka’s Choice" (2015), "Lanka’s Princess" (2016), "The Fisher Queen’s Dynasty" (2017), "Ahalya’s Awakening" (2019), and her latest work, "Sarasvati’s Gift", “Tara’s Truce” (2023).

Lanka’s Princess :

Here, In this attempt of her. Kane tried to gave many new shades to the character of Surpanakha. But she did not allow her character draft to be so imbalance and flawless. She portrayed Surpanakha by becoming her. By the whole reading we come to know as readers that many times Kane herself wearing the shoe of Surpanakha to draw her each moment of pains and pleasures.

Kane is using very unique style of giving titles. As she chose to deal with a single character mostly a female one, she tries to keep readers on thinking mode from title to the end itself. Her stance to give such a tones modernity and sexuality in the story to a character is so real. She never fails to make the character uprooted by making it well rooted as a writer. The writers who are doing retelling of the mythology are more alert with their responsibilities. Because the domain of mythology is a almost public and known one. So common people already know your story but you need to make it more mysterious and meaningful to the present time and the known audiences. Kane also well balanced the act of humanising Surpanakha by giving her exact touch of human emotions and demons instincts.

A soul revolves around revenge and rejection :

‘A shift from Minakshi to Surpanakha'

The prologue titled as ‘Kubja’. Kubja means A hunchback. Kane introduce us to the character in the prologue and using the main factor of her appearance. There is a beautiful conversation between Kubja and Krishna where we feel that she is taking us to the world of Surpanakha.

She stared at him transfixed, speechless. ‘You were born a beautiful princess Minakshi, the sister of the asura king Ravan, but your wickedness turned you into a monster - Surpanakha, the woman as hard as nails…’ he explained. ‘Do you remembered me? The man who rejected you and in your wrath you took a terrible revenge on me, my wife Sita and my rother Lakshmn…?’

‘What did i do so terrible then that i had to leaf this life in misery?’ cried Kubja. terrified.

Krishna smiled, taking her trembling hand in his. Kubja felt a strange sense of fulfilment.

‘Well, allow me to tell your story..’(Kané)

The chapters are classified based on the names of places, names of characters, ‘eternal bhav’, and events. Each chapter deals with particular turn of her life. Each contains the same importance. The epilogue titled as ‘Phulwati’. Where she left as rejection in the end too like Kubja and Surpanakha. Kane makes her so successfully, a warrior who fought in every birth against revenge and rejection. And the one who will have to remain a one sided lover and suffered soul.

A character in a liminal space

Surpanakha, the one who shares a liminal space in the story. We see that she in the constant space where she get herself in the inner world and the outer world. A constant battle of complications and personal feelings and emotions. She is seen as she always prefer to choose herself and her own instincts over anything happens in her life. Though there are many events and people who tried to make her feel confused about her decisions. Also she belongs to the linage of asura. But the shift from asura to making her more human is a completely justified. We do not feel that Kane just stuck to proving her in the box of good and bad but she did a successful amalgamation of both tones.

How the myth has look at the main turn of her life. From the pen of Valmiki :

अस्य रूपस्य ते युक्ता भार्याहं वरवर्णिनी।

मया सह सुखं सर्वान्दण्डकान्विचरिष्यसि।।3.18.7।।

एवमुक्तस्तु सौमित्री राक्षस्या वाक्यकोविदः।

ततश्शूर्पणखीं स्मित्वा लक्ष्मणो युक्तमब्रवीत्।।3.18.8।।

कथं दासस्य मे दासी भार्या भवितुमिच्छसि।

सोऽहमार्येण परवान्भ्रात्रा कमलवर्णिनि।।3.18.9।।

With my fine complexion, I will be a suitable wife for you. You can happily wander about in Dandaka forest with me. Thus addressed by the demoness Lakshmana, son of Sumitra, well versed in the use of words gave her a befitting reply : O lotus complexioned woman , how can you act as a maid to a slave ? Why do you intend to be so? I am already dependent on my revered brother.

By the Pen of Kane :

He was saying, 'I could not bring her as I am my brother's servant, at his service all the while. And that is the same reason, I cannot be yours, lady,' he said stiffly, glaring not at her but his brother, a Accused of manipulating events between Ram and Ravan, which culminated into a bloody war and annihilation of her family, Kavita Kané's Lanka's Princess makes us see the familiar events unfold through the eyes of a woman more hated than hateful…disapproving frown on his handsome face.

They are rejecting me! But why, she thought wildly. I am young and beautiful and desirable. Why did they not like me? Am I not enticing enough?

Lakshman's brow suddenly cleared, and said gently, 'I am but a slave. Do you wish to be a slave's slave or the master's? You deserve someone better, madam, and that person is Ram as you had rightly chosen before!' After a pause, he said teasingly, 'He is trying to fool you. You can be his second wife! Go to him, is he not better looking than me? He will make a better husband too, dear lady.’(Kané)

We can see that How Kane make the difference of revisioning and reimagining of the events from the Valmiki has done before. And in between she put Surpanakha’s inner feeling and thoughts on going in her mind. As it is mention on the cover page of book itself.

Accused of manipulating events between Ram and Ravan, which culminated into a bloody war and annihilation of her family, Kavita Kané's Lanka's Princess makes us see the familiar events unfold through the eyes of a woman more hated than hateful…

Jungian Theory

What is Collective Unconsciousness?

The concept of the collective unconscious, coined by psychiatrist Carl Jung, refers to a shared aspect of the unconscious mind present in all human beings. This collective unconscious originates from the inherent structure of the brain and is separate from the personal unconscious, which is shaped by individual experiences. Within the collective unconscious, Jung posited the existence of archetypes—fundamental, universal images and ideas that are innate to human consciousness.

Archetypes are intrinsic and universal templates of human personas, behaviours, and traits that exert influence on human actions. Carl Jung, the Swiss psychiatrist, proposed that these archetypes stem from ancient, innate human wisdom transmitted through generations. Within Jungian psychology, these archetypes symbolise enduring patterns and symbols ingrained in the collective unconscious. Jung suggested that we inherit these archetypes akin to instinctual behavioural patterns.

Jung's conception of the human psyche consisted of three main elements:

The ego (Conscius)

The personal unconscious

The collective unconscious

The main archetypes :

The Persona

The Shadow

The Anima or Animus

The Self

Surpanakha as anima

Surpanakha's character may represent the anima archetype as she embodies qualities traditionally associated with femininity. This could include traits such as emotional sensitivity, intuition, and a connection to nature. Throughout the narrative, Surpanakha's actions and interactions could reflect these qualities, providing depth to her character. The anima archetype often symbolizes the longing for connection and wholeness. Surpanakha's pursuit of romantic relationships, particularly her attraction to Rama and subsequent jealousy toward Sita, could be seen as manifestations of this desire for connection. Her yearning for love and belonging drives much of her behavior in the story. Surpanakha's journey could involve confronting inner conflicts and integrating different aspects of herself, including her anima traits. As she grapples with her desires, insecurities, and the consequences of her actions, Surpanakha may undergo a process of self-discovery and growth. This could involve embracing her feminine essence while also acknowledging and reconciling with her shadow aspects. Surpanakha's relationships with other characters, particularly Ravana and her brothers, could reflect aspects of the anima archetype. Her interactions with Ravana, for example, may highlight themes of power dynamics, desire, and emotional vulnerability. Her bond with her brothers could represent familial ties and the need for support and protection. By viewing Surpanakha through the lens of the anima archetype, readers can gain a deeper understanding of her character and the psychological dynamics at play in "The Lanka's Princess." This interpretation adds layers of complexity to her motivations, relationships, and personal journey throughout the narrative.

Ravana as animus

Ravana, as the powerful ruler of Lanka, exhibits traits commonly associated with the animus archetype, such as dominance, assertiveness, and aggression. His actions and decisions are often driven by a desire for power and control over others, reflecting a strong manifestation of masculine energy. Ravana is portrayed as a highly intelligent and strategic thinker, relying on his intellect and rationality to achieve his goals. This characteristic aligns with the animus archetype, which is often associated with logical reasoning and problem-solving skills. Despite his formidable exterior, Ravana's character may also harbour internal conflicts and complexities, reflecting the nuanced nature of the animus archetype. He may struggle with aspects of his own masculinity, such as vulnerability or emotional turmoil, which surface in his interactions with other characters. Ravana's dynamic with Sita, the protagonist, can be viewed through the lens of the animus archetype. His kidnapping of Sita and subsequent attempts to sway her allegiance can symbolize a confrontation between masculine and feminine energies. Ravana's relentless pursuit of Sita may stem from a desire to possess and control her, representing an imbalance in his animus. Throughout the narrative, Ravana's character arc may involve a journey of self-discovery and integration of his animus. This could manifest as moments of introspection and self-awareness, where he confronts his own flaws and insecurities, ultimately leading to personal growth and transformation.

Conclusion :

As we see a text or work can be sen by many perspectives and theories can applied successfully. People have seen this character and book by the lens of feminism, Androcentrism, Women Identity And Self-Assertion, humanise the demonic character etc. Here a researcher tried to see such characters by using archetype by Carl Jung. Where we can see major two characters that is, Surpanakha and Ravana. A story has protagonist a Surpanakha and antagonist Ravana.

“We need to interpret interpretation more than to interpret things.” - Montaigne

It is a high time to revisioning and reimaging such stories and character from myths. As time changes and it become the main reason to have new perspectives and new voices to be raised. Only things are worthy when it gets change according to it’s requirements. If we do not have such courage to look at the things in new ways. One can say it is totally regressive process itself.

Works Cited

YouTube: Home, 3 June 2009, https://www.valmiki.iitk.ac.in/sloka?field_kanda_tid=3&language=dv&field_sarga_value=18. Accessed 15 March 2024.

Cherry, Kendra. “12 Archetypes: Definition, Theory, and Types.” Verywell Mind, 11 March 2023, https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-jungs-4-major-archetypes-2795439#toc-the-main-archetypes. Accessed 15 March 2024.

“Collective unconscious | Definition & Facts.” Britannica, 20 February 2024, https://www.britannica.com/science/collective-unconscious. Accessed 15 March 2024.

“A DECONSTRUCTIVE READING TO STRUCTURE, SIGN AND PLAY BY DERRIDA.” Academia.edu, https://www.academia.edu/33430749/A_DECONSTRUCTIVE_READING_TO_STRUCTURE_SIGN_AND_PLAY_BY_DERRIDA. Accessed 15 March 2024.

Kane, Kavita. “Kavita Kane - Penguin Random House India.” Penguin India, https://www.penguin.co.in/book_author/kavita-kane/. Accessed 14 March 2024.

Kané, Kavita. Lanka's Princess. Rupa, 2017.

Palat, Lakshana, and Kavita Kané. “Lanka's Princess: A book that attempts to humanise the demonic Surpanakha.” Hindustan Times, 16 February 2017, https://www.hindustantimes.com/books/lanka-s-princess-a-book-that-attempts-to-humanise-the-demonic-surpanakha/story-dZTll4MOtz1WZtPV57PR3O.html. Accessed 15 March 2024.

“Subverting Androcentrism and Voicing the Silenced in Kavita Kane's The Lanka's Princess.” Redalyc, https://www.redalyc.org/journal/7038/703873514012/html/. Accessed 15 March 2024.

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Rooh by Manav Kaul

Dissertation - Conclusion

Dissertation - Conclusion

Name: Emisha Ravani

Paper: 210A:

Research Project Writing: Dissertation Writing

Roll no: 07

Enrollment no: 4069206420210031

Email id: emisharavani3459@gmail.com

Batch: 2021-2023(M.A. Sem 4) 

Submitted to: S. B. Gardi Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University

Conclusion

This dissertation endeavors to draw a comparison between two distinguished novels that hail from divergent continents and centuries. Despite the geographical and temporal dissimilarities, the literary works share both commonalities and divergences, intriguingly reflecting the essence of universalism and literariness of the authors.

The authors, each in their own right, have produced literary masterpieces that emanate from their own personal experiences. F. Scott Fitzgerald, through his depiction of the protagonist Jay Gatsby, imbues his work with autobiographical elements. Similarly, Chetan Bhagat, through the character of Gopal, depicts the struggles of a budding engineer, thereby adding a touch of realism to his work.

The basics which are put in the table of comparison is like:

The two novels are different in terms of setting and theme. The Great Gatsby is set in the United States in the 1920s, and it explores the decadence and moral decay of the wealthy elite, while Revolution Twenty20 is set in contemporary India and focuses on the aspirations and struggles of the middle class.

In terms of writing style, The Great Gatsby is written in a lyrical and elegant style, with complex and often indirect characterization, while Revolution Twenty20 is written in a more straightforward and conversational style, with simpler and more direct characterization.

In terms of characters, The Great Gatsby is characterised by larger-than-life figures such as Jay Gatsby and Daisy Buchanan, while the characters in Revolution Twenty20 are more relatable, everyday people. The characters in The Great Gatsby are more flamboyant, while those in Revolution Twenty20 are more realistic and grounded in everyday life.

It is important to note that The Great Gatsby and Revolution Twenty20 differ significantly in terms of their approach, style, and characterization.

F. Scott Fitzgerald's classic novel, The Great Gatsby, is a timeless masterpiece that delves into the decadence and moral decay of the wealthy elite in 1920s America. Fitzgerald's writing style is characterized by its lyrical and evocative quality, which imbues the novel with a sense of glamour and grandeur. The novel's setting, the fictional Long Island enclave of West Egg, serves as a backdrop to the larger-than-life characters and their extravagant lifestyles. Through the character of Jay Gatsby, Fitzgerald explores the elusive nature of the American dream and the corrupting influence of wealth and power.

On the other hand, Chetan Bhagat's Revolution Twenty20 is a contemporary novel that is set in India and focuses on the struggles and aspirations of the middle class. Bhagat's writing style is marked by its accessibility and humour, which makes the novel a compelling and engaging read. The novel's setting in the city of Varanasi provides a vivid and realistic portrayal of life in contemporary India, with its myriad challenges and opportunities. Through the characters of Gopal and Raghav, Bhagat explores the complex social and economic forces that shape the lives of the middle class in India, and the tensions and conflicts that arise as they pursue their dreams and aspirations.

While both The Great Gatsby and Revolution Twenty20 share some thematic similarities, they are fundamentally different in terms of their approach, style, and characterization. Fitzgerald's classic novel offers a compelling and insightful exploration of the decadence and moral decay of the wealthy elite in America, while Bhagat's contemporary novel provides a nuanced and empathetic portrayal of the struggles and aspirations of the middle class in India.

Comparative Literature Studies is a discipline that examines connections between different aesthetic forms, cultural traditions, and ideas, without arbitrary stopping at national or linguistic borders. It encompasses literature, visual culture, and cultural production more broadly. Chetan Bhagat is an Indian author who writes about contemporary Indian society, culture, and politics and is known for his simple, straightforward writing style. Francis Scott Fitzgerald was an American author known for his novels exploring wealth, status, love, and decadence during the 1920s and is considered one of the greatest writers of the 20th century. The Great Gatsby and Revolution Twenty20 are two novels that can be compared through their themes and how they reflect their respective times and cultures. The Great Gatsby explores the decadence of the 1920s and the collapse of the American dream, while Revolution Twenty20 deals with issues like corruption, poverty, and unemployment in contemporary India.

As outlined in the introductory chapter, Comparative Literature stands apart from the study of individual literary traditions not solely by way of its methodological approach, but also in its matter, attitude, and perspective. Through its focus on the intersection and overlap of various literary traditions, Comparative Literature provides a uniquely cosmopolitan lens through which to view the complex and nuanced relationships between literary works, genres, and cultures.

One of the key strengths of Comparative Literature lies precisely in its cosmopolitanism. By transcending national, linguistic, and cultural boundaries, this field of inquiry offers a panoramic view of the world's literary traditions, facilitating a more comprehensive understanding of the shared human experiences, themes, and concerns that underpin the world's diverse literary output. This approach enables Comparative Literature scholars to draw upon a rich array of perspectives and insights, and to identify connections and resonances that might otherwise remain obscured.

This cosmopolitanism can also be a source of weakness, particularly when it is not accompanied by a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of individual literary traditions. Without a thorough grounding in the specific cultural and historical contexts that shape a given literary tradition, Comparative Literature risks reducing works to mere representations of abstract, universal themes, and losing sight of the particularities and intricacies that make each tradition unique.

Despite these challenges, the field of Comparative Literature remains a dynamic and ever-expanding area of inquiry, capable of encompassing the literatures of the entire world. Through its commitment to exploring the complex interplay between literary traditions, Comparative Literature offers a valuable tool for deepening our understanding of both the universal and the particular in literature and beyond.

By engaging in comparative analysis of authors from diverse cultural and historical backgrounds, we can discern the universal human experiences and preoccupations such as the quest for wealth, love, and the American dream, that transcend the boundaries of time and place. This approach allows us to appreciate the distinct nuances and complexities of each society and historical moment, while simultaneously illuminating the shared human condition that unites us all. In this way, the act of comparison can serve as a powerful tool for deepening our understanding of both the universal and the particular in literature and beyond.

The enduring relevance and literary merit of the two novels under examination will be unequivocally demonstrated by their ability to resonate with readers from diverse cultural and temporal contexts, transcending the boundaries of time and place. Their continued popularity and critical acclaim serve as testament to their profound impact on the human psyche, and their ability to speak to the fundamental experiences and concerns that unite us all as a species. Through rigorous study and analysis, we will uncover the universal themes and motifs that have cemented these works as enduring classics, and shed light on the ways in which they continue to shape our understanding of the human condition.

The question of what comparative literature is inevitably arises for those who claim to work in the field. At its simplest, comparative literature entails studying texts across cultures, using an interdisciplinary approach to identify patterns of connection that transcend time and space. It is often a destination arrived at by those who started from different points of departure. Some seek to move beyond the constraints of a single subject area, while others are compelled to explore similarities between texts or authors from different cultural contexts. As Bassnett suggests, comparative literature is a rich and varied field that allows scholars to delve into the complexities of literary works and their global connections.

In this research, the theoretical framework of Genetic Structuralism, as articulated by Goldman, has been deftly applied, thereby providing a rigorous and comprehensive analysis of the key comparison between the literary works under examination. This theoretical approach has not only enriched the research process, but also enabled a nuanced and sophisticated understanding of the complex structures and underlying themes that animate these texts.

Through its emphasis on the interplay between historical and cultural contexts, textual structures, and the creative process of the author, Genetic Structuralism offers a uniquely illuminating lens through which to view literary works. By attending to the intricate details of the text, and exploring the ways in which it is shaped by larger cultural and historical forces, this approach facilitates a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the literary work as a whole. By deploying this theoretical framework in the present study, the research has been able to uncover previously unnoticed connections and resonances between the two literary works, and to shed light on the ways in which these works reflect and respond to larger cultural and historical contexts. In so doing, the study not only enriches our understanding of the particular works under consideration, but also demonstrates the value of Genetic Structuralism as a tool for illuminating the complex interplay of history, culture, and literature.

Limitations

The ultimate limit of comparative literature is the literatures of the whole world, meaning that it is open to studying any literature from any culture. This cosmopolitanism is both a strength and a weakness of comparative literature. On the one hand, it allows for a truly global perspective that can reveal new insights into the nature of literature and its relationship to culture. On the other hand, it can be difficult to achieve a deep understanding of multiple literary traditions, and some critics argue that comparative literature can lead to a superficial or reductive approach to complex cultural texts.

This dissertation has some limitations. When delving into the historical events or the background of any particular era, the scope for exploration is vast and boundless. The researcher, in this case, has focused solely on the general events that hold significance for the literary works under analysis. It is plausible that the research may not be as exhaustive and all-encompassing as the expanse of the subject matter may demand. The limitations do not compromise the integrity and significance of the research conducted.

Assignment - “Translation and Literary History: An Indian View” Ganesh Devy

“Translation and Literary History: An Indian View”

Ganesh Devy

Name: Emisha Ravani

Paper: 208: Comparative Literature & Translation Studies

Roll no: 07

Enrollment no: 4069206420210031

Email id: emisharavani3459@gmail.com

Batch: 2021-2023(M.A. Sem 4) 

Submitted to: S. B. Gardi Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University

Introduction

Translation studies is an interdisciplinary field of study that explores the theory, history, and practice of translation. It encompasses a range of topics, including the cultural and linguistic aspects of translation, the ethics of translation, the role of translation in society, and the relationship between translation and other disciplines such as literature, linguistics, and philosophy. Translation studies emerged in the 1970s as a distinct academic discipline, and has since developed into a vibrant field with a global community of scholars and practitioners. The field draws on a variety of disciplines, including linguistics, literary studies, cultural studies, philosophy, and anthropology, among others.

One of the key concerns of translation studies is the relationship between language and culture. Translation involves the transfer of meaning from one language to another, and this process inevitably involves cultural differences and nuances. Translation studies seeks to understand how translators navigate these differences, and how they can work to preserve the cultural and linguistic nuances of the original text. Another important area of inquiry in translation studies is the role of translation in shaping literary and cultural history. Translations often play a key role in the circulation and dissemination of literary works across national and cultural boundaries, and can have a profound impact on the reception and interpretation of these works.

Introduction

"Translation and Literary History: An Indian View" is a scholarly essay written by Ganesh Devy, a renowned Indian linguist, literary critic, and activist. Devy argues that translation plays a critical role in shaping literary history and cultural identity. He contends that translation is not merely a linguistic exercise but a political and ideological one, as it involves the transfer of ideas and values from one culture to another. According to Devy, translations are not just secondary works but are integral to the literary canon and literary tradition. Devy also highlights the challenges that translators face in preserving the original cultural and linguistic nuances of a text while making it accessible to readers from a different cultural background. He argues that translators must be familiar with both the source and target cultures and languages, and should be sensitive to the socio-political and historical context in which the original text was written.

Translation and Literary History: An Indian View” Ganesh Devy

‘Translation is the wandering existence of a text in a perpetual exile,’. - J. Hillis Miller

Western metaphysics holds that translation is a form of exile, a departure from the original source. This idea is rooted in the myth of Babel and the subsequent linguistic crisis. As a result, translations are often considered inferior to original works in Western literary criticism, due to their perceived lack of authenticity and temporal distance from the source. Western culture's emphasis on individualism and the notion of guilt further contribute to the devaluation of translations. Translations are often seen as an intrusion of "the other," though some may find pleasure in this encounter.

Unfortunately, this narrow view of translation has limited the Western literary historiography's ability to understand the origins of literary traditions. One significant example of this is the authorized translation of the Bible, which had a transformative impact on the English language and literary style.

Over the past two centuries, translation has played a crucial role in communicating literary movements across linguistic borders. For instance, the Anglo-Irish literary tradition that gave us renowned writers like Shaw, Yeats, Joyce, Beckett, and Heaney owes its origins to the translation of Irish works into English initiated by Macpherson in the late 18th century. Similarly, Indian English literature emerged from the Indological activity of translation during the late 18th and 19th centuries. Many Anglo-Irish and Indian English writers have also been accomplished translators themselves. Likewise, the settler colonies of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand have impressive modern literary traditions that have arisen from the "translation" of settlers from their homelands to foreign locations. In post-colonial writing, translation has proven to be a crucial condition for creativity, as seen in former Spanish colonies in South America, former colonies in Africa, and other parts of the world.

Since most literary traditions originate in translation and gain substance through repeated acts of translation, it would be useful to have a theory of literary translation to support a theory of literary history. However, translations are often perceived as unoriginal, and little attention has been given to the aesthetics of translation. Primary issues related to form and meaning have also not been fully resolved in relation to translation. Critics have not taken a well-defined position about the placement of translations in literary history, whether they belong to the history of the "T" languages or the "S" languages or form an independent tradition. This ontological uncertainty surrounding translations has resulted in a haphazard approach to translation studies that devotes too much energy to discussing problems of conveying the original meaning in an altered structure.

Roman Jakobson in his essay on the linguistics of translation proposed a threefold classification of translations: (a) those from one verbal order to another verbal order within the same language system, (b) those from one language system to another language system, and (c) those from a verbal order to another system of signs (Jakobson, 1959, pp. 232– 9). As he considers, theoretically, a complete semantic equivalence as the final objective of a translation act – which is not possible – he asserts that poetry is untranslatable. He maintains that only a ‘creative translation’ is possible.

It is important to recognize that the concept of synonymy within a single language system cannot be equated with the concept of synonymy between two distinct languages. Structural linguistics considers language as a system of signs, arbitrarily developed, that tries to cover the entire range of significance available to the culture of that language. The signs do not mean anything by or in themselves; they acquire significance by virtue of their relation to the entire system to which they belong. This theory naturally looks askance at translation which is an attempt to rescue/ abstract significance from one system of signs and to wed it with another such system. But language is an open system. It keeps admitting new signs as well as new significance in its fold.

When considering the communication of significance, it is necessary to examine whether systems can become a single open and extended system. If we define translation as a form of communication that conveys meaning, and we accept the structuralist principle that communication is made possible by the nature of signs and their entire system, then it is logical to conclude that translation is the merging of two or more sign systems. Such a merger is feasible because systems of signs are open and susceptible to change.

‘Translating Consciousness’

The idea of a "translating consciousness" and the communities of individuals who possess it are not merely abstract concepts. In many Third World countries, where a dominant colonial language has been given a privileged position, such communities do exist. India is an example of a country where multiple languages are used simultaneously by language communities, creating a continuous spectrum of signs and meaning. The use of multiple languages in translation activities cannot be fully understood through theories of foreign language acquisition that assume a chronological gap and a hierarchical scale in language learning situations. Although Chomsky's linguistic theories include the concept of semantic universals, they represent the farthest limits to which monolingual Saussurean linguistic materialism can be extended. In practice, even in Europe, the translating consciousness treats the source language and target language as parts of a larger and continuous spectrum of intersecting verbal sign systems. However, the structuralist reluctance to acknowledge any non-systemic or extra-systemic core of meaning has resulted in an inadequate concept of synonymy in the West for explaining translation activities. Without a linguistic theory based on a multilingual perspective or on translation practice, Western translation thought overemphasizes the validity of the concept of synonymy.

J.C. Catford presents a comprehensive statement of theoretical formulation about the linguistics of translation in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, in which he seeks to isolate various linguistic levels of translation. His basic premise is that since translation is a linguistic act any theory of translation must emerge from linguistics: ‘Translation is an operation performed on languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another; clearly, then, any theory of translation must draw upon a theory of language – a general linguistic theory’ (Catford, 1965, p. vii).

Orientalism for the Orient, and anthropology for the rest of the world. In its various phases of

development modern Western linguistics has connections with all these. After the ‘discovery’ of Sanskrit by Sir William Jones, historical linguistics in Europe depended heavily on Orientalism. For a long time afterwards linguistics followed the path of comparative philology. And after Saussure and Lévi-Strauss, linguistics started treating language with an anthropological curiosity. When linguistics branched off to its monolingual structuralist path, comparative literature still persisted in its faith in the translatability of literary texts.

Translation can be seen as an attempt to bring a given language system in its entirety as close as possible to the areas of significance that it shares with another given language or languages.

 Literary translation is not just a replication of a text in another verbal system of signs. It is a replication of an ordered sub-system of signs within a given language in another corresponding ordered sub-system of signs within a related language.

  

The challenges encountered in translation studies are comparable to those in literary history. Both fields grapple with the complexities of the connection between origins and progression. However, just like in translation studies, the question of origin in literary history has not been adequately addressed. It is essential to note that the concept of the origins of literary traditions may require a different perspective from literary communities that have a "translating consciousness." Indian literary communities possess such consciousness, as demonstrated by the fact that modern Indian literatures were founded on translation efforts by individuals such as Jayadeva, Hemcandra, Michael Madhusudan Dutta, H.N. Apte, and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.

Conclusion 

In contrast to Western Christian metaphysics, Indian metaphysics maintains a belief in the unimpeded transmigration of the soul from one body to another, making repeated birth an inherent aspect of all living creations. In this view, when the soul moves from one body to another, it retains its fundamental significance, and Indian philosophical systems concerning the interrelationship between form and essence, structure and meaning, are guided by this metaphysical perspective. The soul, or significance, is not bound by the laws of time, and therefore, even literary significance is considered ahistorical in Indian thought. Elements such as plot, characters, and stories can be reused by new generations of writers because originality is not the primary criterion of literary excellence in Indian literary theory. If originality were emphasized, a significant number of Indian classics would not pass the test. The actual measure of excellence is the writer's ability to transform, translate, restate, and reinvigorate the original work. As a result, Indian literary traditions are, in essence, traditions of translation.

Works Cited

MAMBROL, NASRULLAH. “Translation Studies – Literary Theory and Criticism.” Literary Theory and Criticism, 15 December 2017, https://literariness.org/2017/12/15/translation-studies/. Accessed 29 March 2023.

Singh, Prof Madhu. “Translation and Literary History: An Indian View” Ganesh Devy.” Translation and Literary History G N Devy, https://udrc.lkouniv.ac.in/Content/DepartmentContent/SM_c30be09c-d6c7-4cd2-a95c-a81119f654eb_6.pdf. Accessed 29 March 2023.